Skip Navigation

Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis

  1. Alan L. Bisno1,
  2. Michael A. Gerber2,
  3. Jack M. Gwaltney Jr3,
  4. Edward L. Kaplan5, and
  5. Richard H. Schwartz3,4
  1. 1Department of Medicine, University of Miami School of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, Florida
  2. 2Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati School of Medicine, Ohio
  3. 3University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville
  4. 4Inova Fairfax Hospital for Children, Falls Church, Virginia
  5. 5Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis
  1. Reprints or correspondence: Dr. Alan L. Bisno, Medical Service (111), Rm. 1039, Miami VA Medical Center, 1201 N.W. 16th St., Miami, FL 33125 (abisno{at}med.miami.edu).
 
Next Section

Executive Summary

The objective of this practice guideline is to provide recommendations for the accurate diagnosis and optimal treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in children and adults.

The desired outcomes are prevention of acute rheumatic fever, prevention of suppurative complications, improvement of clinical symptoms and signs, reduction in transmission of group A β-hemolytic streptococci to close contacts of patients, and minimization of potential adverse effects of inappropriate antimicrobial therapy.

This statement is an update of the practice guideline published in 1997 [1] and takes into account relevant research published since that time. A major substantive change is the acceptance of negative results of rapid antigen detection testing (RADT) for exclusion of acute streptococcal pharyngitis, without the previously mandated confirmation with a negative culture result, provided certain criteria are met, as detailed below.

Diagnosis. Acute pharyngitis is one of the most frequent illnesses for which pediatricians, internists, and other primary care physicians are consulted. Although the group A streptococcus is the most common bacterial cause of acute pharyngitis, only a small percentage of patients with this condition are infected by group A streptococci. Moreover, group A streptococcal pharyngitis is the only commonly occurring form of acute pharyngitis for which antibiotic therapy is definitely indicated. Therefore, for a patient with acute pharyngitis, the clinical decision that usually needs to be made is whether the pharyngitis is attributable to group A streptococci.

The signs and symptoms of group A streptococcal and other (most frequently viral) pharyngitides overlap broadly. Therefore, unless the physician is able with confidence to exclude the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis on epidemiological and clinical grounds, a laboratory test should be done to determine whether group A streptococci are present in the pharynx. The test may be either culture of a throat swab specimen or an RADT, which detects the presence of group A streptococcal carbohydrate on a throat swab. A positive result of throat culture or RADT for a patient with signs and symptoms of acute pharyngitis is considered, for clinical purposes, to establish the diagnosis of “strep throat.” However, because some RADTs appear to be considerably less sensitive than is culture of a throat swab specimen, a negative RADT result for a child or adolescent should be confirmed by performance of a throat culture, unless the physician has ascertained in his or her practice that the RADT being used is comparable in sensitivity to a throat culture. Because of the epidemiological features of acute pharyngitis in adults (e.g., low incidence of streptococcal infection and extremely low risk of rheumatic fever), diagnosis of this infection in adults on the basis of the results of an RADT, without confirmation of negative RADT results by negative results of culture, is an acceptable alternative to diagnosis on the basis of throat culture results (figure 1). The generally high specificity of RADTs should minimize overprescription of antimicrobials for treatment of adults.

Figure 1
View larger version:
Figure 1

Diagnosis and management of acute pharyngitis. The algorithm applies to uncomplicated cases of acute pharyngitis. Additional diagnostic and therapeutic measures may be necessary for patients with suppurative complications (e.g., peritonsillar abscess or cervical lymphadenitis) or infection with uncommon pharyngeal bacterial pathogens (e.g., Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae) is suspected. *See the discussion in Diagnosis of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis. Neg., negative result; pos., positive result.

Therapy. Patients with acute streptococcal pharyngitis should receive therapy with an antimicrobial agent in a dose and for a duration that is likely to eradicate the infecting organism from the pharynx. A number of antibiotics have been shown to be effective in treating group A streptococcal pharyngitis. These include penicillin and its congeners (such as ampicillin, amoxicillin, and the semisynthetic penicillins), as well as numerous cephalosporins and macrolides and clindamycin. Penicillin, however, remains the agent of choice because of its proven efficacy, safety, narrow spectrum, and its low cost. Amoxicillin is often used in place of oral penicillin V to treat young children; the efficacy appears to be equal. This choice is primarily related to acceptance of the taste of the suspension. Preliminary investigations have demonstrated that once-daily amoxicillin therapy is effective in the treatment of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis [2, 3]. If these results are confirmed by additional investigations, once-daily amoxicillin therapy, because of its low cost and relatively narrow spectrum, could become an alternative regimen to treat group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis.

Intramuscular administration of benzathine penicillin G is preferred for patients who are unlikely to complete a full 10-day course of oral therapy. Erythromycin is a suitable alternative for patients allergic to penicillin. First-generation cephalosporins are also acceptable for patients who do not exhibit immediate-type hypersensitivity to β-lactam antibiotics.

Most oral antibiotic therapy must be administered for the conventional 10 days to achieve maximal rates of pharyngeal eradication of group A streptococci, but certain newer agents have been reported to achieve comparable rates of bacteriologic and clinical cure of streptococcal pharyngitis when administered for <5 days. However, no definitive results from comprehensive studies are available to allow final evaluation of these proposed shorter courses of oral antibiotic therapy [4], which, therefore, cannot be recommended at this time. Moreover, these antibiotics have a much broader spectrum than does penicillin, and most, even when administered for short courses, are more expensive.

Except under special circumstances, neither repeat bacteriologic testing (culture or RADT) of patients who are asymptomatic after a course of antimicrobial therapy nor routine testing of asymptomatic household contacts of a patient with group A streptococcal pharyngitis is recommended.

A small percentage of patients will have a recurrence of acute pharyngitis associated with results of throat culture or RADT that are positive for group A streptococci within a short time after completion of a course of antimicrobial therapy. Such episodes may be treated with an antimicrobial agent appropriate for treatment of the initial illness. If the previous treatment was with an oral agent and compliance is in question, a second course of intramuscular benzathine penicillin G therapy should be considered. When multiple episodes occur over the course of months or years, it may be difficult to differentiate viral pharyngitis in a Streptococcus carrier from true group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Therapy with certain antimicrobial agents, such as clindamycin and amoxicillin-clavulanate, may be beneficial, because they have been shown to yield high rates of eradication of streptococci from the pharynx under these particular circumstances.

Previous SectionNext Section

Introduction

Definition. Group A streptococcal pharyngitis (pharyngotonsillitis) is an acute infection of the oropharynx and/or nasopharynx that is caused by Streptococcus pyogenes.

Objectives. The objective of this practice guideline is to provide recommendations for the accurate diagnosis and optimal treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in children and in adults.

Options. The physician caring for a patient with acute pharyngitis must formulate a differential diagnosis and determine which, if any, confirmatory tests should be performed. Should clinical and laboratory evaluation result in a diagnosis of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis, penicillin remains the drug of choice for treatment. For the patient allergic to penicillin, several alternative antimicrobial agents are available.

Outcomes. The desired outcomes are as follows: prevention of acute rheumatic fever; prevention of suppurative complications (e.g., peritonsillar abscess, cervical lymphadenitis, and mastoiditis); improvement in clinical symptoms and signs; rapid decrease in infectivity, to reduce transmission of group A β-hemolytic streptococci to family members, classmates, and other close contacts of the patient, and to allow the rapid resumption of usual activities; and minimization of potential adverse effects of inappropriate antimicrobial therapy.

Evidence. A large number of clinical trials of diagnostic and treatment strategies for group A streptococcal pharyngitis were reviewed. The reports were examined for indicators of quality. Studies of treatment, for example, were evaluated for randomization, blinding, use of streptococcal typing to differentiate treatment failures from new infections, duration and timing of follow-up examinations, and statistical power [5, 6]. For particular recommendations and statements, the strength of the supporting evidence and quality of the data are rated by use of an Infectious Diseases Society of America–United States Public Health Service grading system [6] (table 1). A rating of A–E indicates the strength of a recommendation, and the Roman numerals I–III indicate the quality of the supporting evidence. These ratings are presented in parentheses after specific recommendations.

Table 1
View larger version:
Table 1

Infectious Diseases Society of America—United States Public Health Service grading system for rating recommendations in clinical guidelines.

Valuation of options. In evaluating diagnostic options, a high value was placed on selecting the diagnostic test with the greatest accuracy in differentiating acute pharyngitis due to group A β-hemolytic streptococci from that due to other agents. For evaluation of treatment, particularly high values were assigned to proven clinical and bacteriologic efficacy, safety, spectrum of antimicrobial activity, and relative cost.

Benefits and costs. Group A β-hemolytic streptococcus is the most common bacterial cause of acute pharyngitis [7]. Accurate diagnosis followed by appropriate antimicrobial therapy is important for the reasons stated above (see the section “Outcomes”).

Although acute pharyngitis is one of the most frequent illnesses for which pediatricians and other primary care physicians are consulted, only a relatively small percentage of patients with this condition are infected by group A streptococci. Moreover, the signs and symptoms of group A streptococcal and nonstreptococcal pharyngitis overlap so broadly that accurate diagnosis on clinical grounds alone is usually impossible [8].

With the exception of very rare infections by certain other pharyngeal bacterial pathogens (e.g., Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Neisseria gonorrhoeae; see table 2), antimicrobial therapy is of no proven benefit as treatment for acute pharyngitis due to bacteria other than group A streptococci. Therefore, it is extremely important that physicians exclude the diagnosis of group A streptococcal pharyngitis to prevent inappropriate administration of antimicrobials to large numbers of patients with pharyngitis. Not only does such therapy unnecessarily expose patients to the expense and hazards of antimicrobial therapy, it contributes to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which is being reported with increasing frequency in the United States and elsewhere.

Table 2
View larger version:
Table 2

Microbial etiology of acute pharyngitis.

If the clinical suspicion of group A streptococcal pharyngitis is supported by identification of the organism in specimens from the pharynx, the clinician should select the most appropriate antimicrobial therapy, choosing from a number of antimicrobial agents known to be effective against group A streptococci. Because the cost to the patient may vary as much as 20-fold, depending on the drug chosen, our recommendations are based on specificity, safety, and cost.

Previous SectionNext Section

Diagnosis of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis

Differential Diagnosis

Nonbacterial infectious agents. Viruses are the most common cause of acute pharyngitis (table 2) [7]. Respiratory viruses, such as adenovirus, influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, rhinovirus, and respiratory syncytial virus, frequently cause acute pharyngitis. Other viral agents of acute pharyngitis include coxsackievirus, echoviruses, and herpes simplex virus. Epstein-Barr virus is a frequent cause of acute pharyngitis that is often accompanied by the other clinical features of infectious mononucleosis (e.g., generalized lymphadenopathy and splenomegaly). Systemic infections with cytomegalovirus, rubella virus, measles virus, and a number of other viral agents may be associated with acute pharyngitis. Other pathogens, such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae, are uncommon causes of acute pharyngitis.

Bacteria. Group A β-hemolytic streptococci are the most common cause of bacterial pharyngitis, but other bacteria can also cause acute pharyngitis (table 2). These include groups C and G β-hemolytic streptococci and C. diphtheriae [10–13]. Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is a rare cause of acute pharyngitis that may be associated with a rash similar to that seen in cases of scarlet fever, particularly in teenagers [14, 15]. N. gonorrhoeae can occasionally cause acute pharyngitis in sexually active persons, and infections with other bacteria, such as Francisella tularensis and Yersinia enterocolitica, and mixed infections with anaerobic bacteria (e.g., Vincent's angina) are rare causes of acute pharyngitis.

As is evident from this list of potential etiologic agents, group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis is the only commonly occurring form of acute pharyngitis for which antibiotic therapy is definitely indicated. Therefore, for a patient with acute pharyngitis, the clinical decision that usually needs to be made is whether the pharyngitis is attributable to group A β-hemolytic streptococci.

Clinical Diagnosis

Acute group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis has certain characteristic epidemiological and clinical features [8, 16, 17] (table 3). The disorder is primarily a disease of children 5–15 years of age, and, in temperate climates, it usually occurs in the winter and early spring. Patients with group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis commonly present with sore throat (generally of sudden onset), severe pain on swallowing, and fever. Headache, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain may also be present, especially in children [8]. On examination, patients have tonsillopharyngeal erythema, with or without exudates, and tender, enlarged anterior cervical lymph nodes (lymphadenitis). Other findings may include a beefy, red, swollen uvula; petechiae on the palate; excoriated nares (especially in infants); and a scarlatiniform rash. However, none of these findings is specific for group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis. Conversely, the absence of fever or the presence of clinical features such as conjunctivitis, cough, hoarseness, coryza, anterior stomatitis, discrete ulcerative lesions, viral exanthem, and diarrhea strongly suggest a viral rather than a streptococcal etiology.

Table 3
View larger version:
Table 3

Clinical and epidemiological findings and diagnosis of pharyngitis due to group A β-hemolytic streptococci (GABS).

Microbiological Tests

Who should be tested for group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis? When deciding whether to perform a microbiological test for a patient presenting with acute pharyngitis, the clinical and epidemiological findings mentioned above should be considered first. A history of close contact with a well-documented case of streptococcal pharyngitis is helpful, as is an awareness of a high prevalence of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal infections in the community. Testing usually need not be done for patients with acute pharyngitis that has clinical and epidemiological features not suggestive of a group A streptococcal etiology. Selective use of diagnostic studies for group A β-hemolytic streptococci will increase not only the proportion of positive test results but also the percentage of cases in which patients have positive test results and are truly infected, rather than merely Streptococcus carriers (A-II).

Efforts have been made to incorporate the clinical and epidemiological features of acute pharyngitis into scoring systems that attempt to predict the probability that a particular illness is caused by group A β-hemolytic streptococci [18–21]. These clinical scoring systems are helpful in identifying patients who are at such low risk of streptococcal infection that performance of a throat culture or an RADT is usually unnecessary. However, the signs and symptoms of streptococcal and nonstreptococcal pharyngitis overlap too broadly for diagnosis to be made with the requisite diagnostic precision on clinical grounds alone. The clinical diagnosis of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis cannot be made with certainty even by the most experienced physicians, and bacteriologic confirmation is required (A-II).

Special considerations in the diagnosis of acute pharyngitis in adults. Group A streptococci cause 15%–30% of cases of acute pharyngitis in pediatric patients but only 5%–10% of such illnesses in adults [22–24]. However, the risk of acute pharyngitis due to group A streptococci is higher for parents of school-aged children and adults whose occupation brings them into close association with children. The risk of a first attack of acute rheumatic fever is extremely low in adults, even if they should have an undiagnosed and untreated episode of streptococcal pharyngitis.

Because of these epidemiological distinctions, the use of a clinical algorithm without microbiological confirmation has recently been recommended as an acceptable alternative basis for diagnosis of infection in adults [25, 26]. In emergency department practice, this 4-factor algorithm predicted a positive result of group A streptococcal throat culture with an accuracy of 32%–56%, depending on the number of required clinical features present [20]. Use of this diagnostic strategy would result in treatment of an unacceptably large number of adults with nonstreptococcal pharyngitis; that is an undesirable result in this age group, which has a low prevalence of streptococcal pharyngitis and very low risk of rheumatic fever or rheumatic carditis. However, because of the aforementioned features of acute pharyngitis in adults, exclusion of the diagnosis on the basis of negative RADT results, without confirmation by negative culture results, is an acceptable alternative to diagnosis on the basis of throat culture results. The generally high specificity of RADT should minimize overprescription of antimicrobials for treatment of adults. This latter point is of particular importance in view of national data indicating that antibiotics—frequently, the more expensive, broader-spectrum antibiotics—are prescribed for approximately three-quarters of adults who consult community primary care physicians because of a sore throat [27].

Throat culture. Culture of a throat swab on a sheep-blood agar plate remains the standard for the documentation of the presence of group A streptococci in the upper respiratory tract and for the confirmation of the clinical diagnosis of acute streptococcal pharyngitis [28] (A-II). If done correctly, culture of a single throat swab on a blood agar plate has a sensitivity of 90%–95% for the detection of the presence of group A β-hemolytic streptococci in the pharynx [29] (A-II).

Several variables affect the accuracy of throat culture results. For example, the manner in which the swab is obtained has an important impact on the yield of streptococci from the culture [30, 31]. Throat swab specimens should be obtained from the surface of both tonsils (or tonsillar fossae) and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Other areas of the oral pharynx and mouth are not acceptable sites, and these sites should not be touched with the swab before or after the appropriate areas have been sampled. Health care providers who compromise in trying to obtain a throat swab from an uncooperative child may obtain a specimen that is neither adequate nor representative. In addition, false-negative results may be obtained if the patient has received antibiotics shortly before or at the time the throat swab is obtained.

It has also been reported that the use of anaerobic incubation and selective culture media may increase the proportion of positive culture results [32, 33]. However, data are conflicting with regard to the impact of the atmosphere of incubation and the culture media, and, in the absence of a definite benefit, the increased cost and effort associated with use of anaerobic incubation and selective culture media are difficult to justify, particularly for physicians who process throat cultures in their own offices [32, 34, 35] (A-II).

Another variable that can affect the yield of the throat culture is the duration of incubation. Once the swab is plated, a culture should be incubated at 35°C–37°C for 18–24 h before reading. An additional incubation overnight at room temperature, however, will identify a considerable number of positive throat culture results that would not otherwise have been identified. Thus, although initial therapeutic decisions may be made on the basis of an overnight culture, it is advisable to examine plates that yield negative results at 24 h again at 48 h [36] (A-II).

The clinical significance of the number of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal colonies present on the throat culture plate is problematic. Although patients with true acute group A streptococcal pharyngitis are likely to have more-strongly positive cultures than are patients who are Streptococcus carriers, there is so much overlap in the degree of positivity of throat culture results that the differentiation cannot be made accurately on this basis alone [35] (A-II).

Probably the most widely used test for differentiation of group A streptococci from other β-hemolytic streptococci in physicians' offices is the bacitracin disk test. This test provides a presumptive identification on the basis of observation that µ95% of group A streptococci demonstrate a zone of inhibition around a disk containing 0.04 U of bacitracin, whereas 83%–97% of non—group A streptococci do not demonstrate this [37, 38].

An alternative and highly specific method of identifying streptococcal serogroups is by detection of the group-specific cell wall carbohydrate antigen directly in isolated bacterial colonies. Commercial kits containing group-specific antisera are available for this purpose. Such tests are appropriate for use by clinical microbiology laboratories, but most physicians performing throat cultures would find it difficult to justify the additional expense for the minimal improvement in accuracy provided by serogroup identification with an antigen detection test [35].

RADT. A disadvantage of culturing a throat swab on blood agar plates is the delay (overnight or longer) in obtaining the result. RADTs have been developed for the identification of group A β-hemolytic streptococci directly from throat swabs. Although these rapid tests are more expensive than blood agar culture, they provide results faster. Rapid identification and treatment of patients with streptococcal pharyngitis can reduce the risk of the spread of group A β-hemolytic streptococci, allowing the patient to return to school or work sooner, and can reduce the acute morbidity associated with the illness [29, 39, 40] (A-II). The use of RADTs for certain populations (e.g., patients in emergency departments) has been shown to significantly increase the number of patients who are appropriately treated for streptococcal pharyngitis, compared with use of traditional throat cultures [41].

The great majority of the RADTs that are currently available have an excellent specificity of ⩾95%, compared with blood agar plate culture [29] (A-II). This means that false-positive test results are unusual, and, therefore, therapeutic decisions can be made with confidence on the basis of a positive test result. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of most of these tests is 80%–90%, or even lower, compared with blood agar plate culture (A-II). It has been suggested that most of the false-negative RADT results occur for patients who are merely Streptococcus carriers and are not truly infected. However, early studies of first-generation RADTs demonstrated that a large proportion of patients with false-negative RADT results were truly infected with group A β-hemolytic streptococci and were not merely carriers [42].

The first RADTs used latex agglutination methods, were relatively insensitive, and had unclear end points. Newer tests based on EIA techniques offer increased sensitivity and a more sharply defined end point [43]. More recently, RADTs that use optical immunoassay and chemiluminescent DNA probes have become available. These tests may be more sensitive than other RADTs and perhaps even as sensitive as standard throat culture on sheep-blood agar plates [44–46]. However, in view of conflicting data about the optical immunoassay RADT [47] and other commercially available RADTs, as well as the paucity of studies directly comparing the various tests, physicians who use any RADT for diagnosis in children and adolescents and who do not use culture to confirm negative results should do so only after confirming in their own practice that the RADT has a sensitivity similar to that of throat culture [48]. Moreover, the practitioner should be aware that, for some of these tests, the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act of 1988 does not waive the need for certification; use of those that are not waived requires proper certification of the physician's laboratory.

Neither conventional throat culture nor RADTs accurately differentiate acutely infected persons from asymptomatic Streptococcus carriers with intercurrent viral pharyngitis. Nevertheless, they allow physicians to withhold antibiotics from the great majority of patients with sore throats for whom results of culture or RADT are negative. This is of extreme importance, because, nationally, 70% of patients with sore throats who are seen in primary care settings receive prescriptions for antimicrobials [49].

Antistreptococcal antibody titers reflect past and not present immunologic events and are of no value in the diagnosis of acute pharyngitis. They are valuable for confirmation of previous streptococcal infections in patients suspected of having acute rheumatic fever or poststreptococcal acute glomerulonephritis. They also are helpful, in prospective epidemiological studies, for distinguishing patients with acute infection from patients who are carriers.

Recommendations

The diagnosis of acute group A streptococcal pharyngitis should be suspected on clinical and epidemiological grounds and then supported by performance of a laboratory test. A positive result of either throat culture or RADT provides adequate confirmation of the presence of group A β-hemolytic streptococci in the pharynx. However, for children and adolescents, a negative RADT result should be confirmed with a throat culture result, unless the physician has ascertained in his or her own practice that the RADT used is comparable to a throat culture. Because of the epidemiological features of acute pharyngitis in adults (e.g., low incidence of streptococcal infection and extremely low risk of rheumatic fever), diagnosis of this infection in adults on the basis of the results of an RADT, without confirmation of negative RADT results by negative results of culture, is an acceptable alternative to diagnosis on the basis of throat culture results. The generally high specificity of RADTs should minimize overprescription of antimicrobials for treatment of adults (A-II).

With regard to repetition of diagnostic tests, the majority of asymptomatic patients who have group A β-hemolytic streptococci remaining in their upper respiratory tracts after completing a course of antimicrobial therapy are Streptococcus carriers [50, 51]. Therefore, follow-up culture of throat swabs is not routinely indicated for asymptomatic patients who have received a complete course of therapy for group A streptococcal pharyngitis (A-II). There are, however, special situations in which asymptomatic persons should have follow-up cultures of throat swabs performed. They should be performed routinely for patients with a history of rheumatic fever and should also be considered for patients who develop acute pharyngitis during outbreaks of either acute rheumatic fever or poststreptococcal acute glomerulonephritis, as well as during outbreaks of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in closed or partially closed communities [48, 51]. Follow-up throat cultures may also be indicated when “ping-pong” spread of group A streptococci has been occurring within a family (B-III). With rare exceptions, follow-up throat cultures are not indicated for asymptomatic patients who have received a complete course of therapy for group A streptococcal pharyngitis.

Previous SectionNext Section

Management of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis

Antimicrobial therapy is indicated for persons with symptomatic pharyngitis if the presence of the organism in the throat is confirmed by culture or RADT (figure 1). If there is clinical or epidemiological evidence that results in a high index of suspicion, antimicrobial therapy can be initiated while the physician is waiting for laboratory confirmation, provided that the therapy is discontinued if the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis is not confirmed by results of a laboratory test. Early initiation of antimicrobial therapy results in faster resolution of signs and symptoms [39, 40, 52] (A-I). However, 2 facts should be remembered. First, group A streptococcal pharyngitis is usually a self-limited disease; fever and constitutional symptoms disappear spontaneously within 3–4 days of onset, even without antimicrobial therapy [53]. This makes objective judgment of clinical improvement associated with therapy even more difficult. Second, therapy can be safely postponed for up to 9 days after the onset of symptoms and still prevent the occurrence of the major nonsuppurative sequela, acute rheumatic fever [54] (A-I).

These facts allow the clinician flexibility in initiating antimicrobial therapy during the evaluation of an individual patient with presumed group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Since the first therapeutic studies were published, nearly 50 years ago [55, 56], numerous antimicrobial agents have been examined in clinical trials and have been shown to be capable of eradication of group A streptococci from the upper respiratory tract. However, the only currently recommended antimicrobial therapy that has been examined in controlled studies and has been shown to prevent initial attacks of rheumatic fever is intramuscular repository-penicillin therapy [55, 56] (A-I). These studies were done with procaine penicillin G in oil containing aluminum monostearate [55, 56], a preparation that has since been supplanted by benzathine penicillin G. (For this reason, no regimens listed in table 4 are rated A-I.) Although they are not definitive, there are data indicating that benzathine penicillin G is effective in primary prevention of rheumatic fever (i.e., prevention of an initial attack of rheumatic fever after group A streptococcal pharyngitis) [57, 58]. Benzathine penicillin G has also been shown to decrease the occurrence of cases of rheumatic fever during streptococcal epidemics in military recruit camps [59]. Moreover, benzathine penicillin G has been proven effective in prevention of rheumatic fever in patients who have had a previous episode of the disease (i.e., as secondary prophylaxis) [60] (A-I). Other antimicrobials can effectively eradicate group A streptococci from the upper respiratory tract, and it is assumed that such eradication is a surrogate for effectiveness in primary prevention of rheumatic fever.

Table 4
View larger version:
Table 4

Recommendations for antimicrobial therapy for group A streptococcal pharyngitis.

Antimicrobial resistance has not been a significant issue in the treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in the United States. No clinical isolate of group A Streptococcus anywhere in the world has been documented to be resistant to penicillin. Although relatively high levels of resistance to macrolide and azalide antibiotics have been reported from several countries [61, 62], <5% of group A streptococci isolates in the United States have been shown to be resistant to erythromycin [63]. Although there have been recent isolated reports of macrolide resistance in the United States [64, 65], there is no evidence that this is widespread at the present time. However, given the increasing use of macrolides and azalides for upper and lower respiratory-tract infections, physicians should be cognizant of local patterns of antimicrobial resistance. Sulfonamides (including trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) and tetracyclines are not recommended for treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis because of the higher rates of antimicrobial resistance to these agents among group A streptococci and the frequent failure of these agents to eradicate even susceptible organisms from the pharynx.

Previous SectionNext Section

Antimicrobial Therapy

When selecting an antimicrobial for treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis, important issues to consider include efficacy, safety, antimicrobial spectrum (narrow vs. broad), dosing schedule, associated compliance with therapy (i.e., adherence), and cost. These factors influence the cost-effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy.

A number of antibiotics have been shown to be effective in treating group A streptococcal pharyngitis. These include penicillin and its congeners (such as ampicillin and amoxicillin), as well as numerous cephalosporins and macrolides and clindamycin. Penicillin, however, remains the treatment of choice because of its proven efficacy and safety, and its narrow spectrum and low cost [48, 66, 67]. Amoxicillin is often used in place of penicillin V as oral therapy for young children; the efficacy appears to be equal. This choice is primarily related to acceptance of the taste of the suspension. Erythromycin is a suitable alternative for patients allergic to penicillin. First-generation cephalosporins are also acceptable for patients allergic to penicillin who do not manifest immediate-type hypersensitivity to β-lactam antibiotics. For the rare patient infected with an erythromycin-resistant strain of group A Streptococcus who is unable to tolerate β-lactam antibiotics, clindamycin is an appropriate alternative.

Most oral antibiotics must be administered for the conventional 10 days to achieve maximal rates of pharyngeal eradication of group A streptococci. It has been reported that clarithromycin [68], cefuroxime [69], cefixime [70], ceftibuten [71], cefdinir [72], cefpodoxime [73], and azithromycin [74] are effective in eradicating group A streptococci from the pharynx when administered for <5 days, although only the latter 3 are approved for a 5-day course of therapy by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) at this writing. However, many studies of short-course therapy lack strict entry criteria, include no assessment of compliance with therapy, and do not include serotypic differentiation between infections for which treatment failed and newly acquired infections. In addition, the spectra of these antibiotics are much broader than is the spectrum of penicillin, and, even when the antibiotics are administered for short courses, they are more expensive [4]. Therefore, use of these shorter courses of oral antimicrobial therapy cannot be endorsed at this time [4, 75].

Attempts to treat pharyngitis due to group A β-hemolytic streptococci with a single daily dose of penicillin have been unsuccessful [76]. In recent years, investigators have demonstrated that once-daily azithromycin [77] and once-daily regimens of several cephalosporins (e.g., cefadroxil [78], cefixime [79, 80], ceftibuten [81], cefpodoxime [73], cefprozil [82], and cefdinir [83]), are effective in eradicating pharyngeal streptococci. Currently, only azithromycin, cefadroxil, cefixime, and cefdinir are FDA approved as once-daily therapy for streptococcal pharyngitis in children.

Preliminary investigations have demonstrated that once-daily amoxicillin therapy is effective treatment for group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis [2, 3]. If its effectiveness is confirmed by additional investigations, once-daily amoxicillin therapy, because of its low cost and relatively narrow spectrum, could become an alternative regimen for the treatment of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis.

Antimicrobials for group A streptococcal upper respiratory tract infections may be given either orally or parenterally. Table 4 lists recommended regimens for several antimicrobials proven to be effective for the treatment of uncomplicated group A streptococcal pharyngitis and gives ratings for the quality of the supporting evidence and the data on which the recommendations are based. Intramuscular benzathine penicillin G therapy is preferred for those patients unlikely to complete a full 10-day course of oral therapy.

Recommendations. Patients with acute streptococcal pharyngitis should receive therapy with an antimicrobial agent at a dose and for a duration that is likely to eradicate the infecting organism from the pharynx. On the basis of its narrow spectrum of antimicrobial activity, the infrequency with which it produces adverse reactions, and its modest cost, penicillin is the drug of choice for treatment of patients who are not allergic to it.

Previous SectionNext Section

Management of Close Contacts and Pharyngeal Carriers

On average, ∼25% of asymptomatic persons in the household of each index patient harbor group A streptococci in their upper respiratory tracts [84]. Usually, however, it is not necessary to test these asymptomatic contacts for group A streptococcal colonization or to treat them, if they have positive test results. In those rare situations in which posttreatment testing of an asymptomatic index patient is indicated (see the section “Recommendations” in Diagnosis of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis), it is recommended that culture be performed for asymptomatic family contacts and treatment be administered to those with positive culture results.

Close contacts of patients with invasive group A streptococcal infections, such as necrotizing fasciitis or toxic shock syndrome, may be at increased risk of developing colonization or infection with the invasive strains. Management of such contacts goes beyond the scope of this guideline and has been addressed in detail elsewhere [85].

Recommendations. Except in specific situations in which there is increased risk of frequent infections or of nonsuppurative streptococcal sequelae, routine culture of throat swab specimens obtained from or treatment of asymptomatic household contacts of patients with group A streptococcal pharyngitis is not recommended (B-III).

Previous SectionNext Section

Management of Patients with Recurrent Episodes of Acute Pharyngitis and Positive Results of Culture or RADT for Group A β-Hemolytic Streptococci

Routine performance of throat culture (or RADT) for asymptomatic persons after they have completed a course of antibiotic therapy is not necessary except in special circumstances (see the section “Recommendations” in Diagnosis of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis). Because routine retesting is no longer advised, only those patients who have signs and symptoms of acute pharyngitis that return in the few weeks after completion of therapy are likely to seek reassessment. Should such symptomatic patients again have culture or RADT results positive for group A streptococci, there are several possible explanations: persistence of carriage in the face of intercurrent viral infection [50]; noncompliance with the prescribed antimicrobial regimen [86]; or a new infection with group A streptococci acquired from family, the classroom, or community contacts. A second episode of pharyngitis caused by the original infecting strain of group A Streptococcus (i.e., treatment failure) cannot be ruled out, but this occurs rarely [87].

Streptococcus carriers do not ordinarily require further antimicrobial therapy. Carriers have group A β-hemolytic streptococci present in their pharynxes but have no evidence of immunologic responses to the organism [88]. During the winter and spring in temperate climates, as many as 20% of asymptomatic school-aged children may be Streptococcus carriers. They may be colonized by group A β-hemolytic streptococci for several months and, during that period, may experience episodes of intercurrent viral pharyngitis. Testing may reveal that these patients have group A β-hemolytic streptococci in their pharynxes, and they appear to have acute streptococcal pharyngitis. Streptococcus carriers are unlikely to spread the organism to their close contacts and are at very low risk, if any, for developing suppurative complications or nonsuppurative complications (e.g., acute rheumatic fever) [88]. Moreover, it is much more difficult to eradicate group A streptococci from the upper respiratory tracts of carriers than from patients with acute infections [50]. This has been shown to be true for penicillin therapy and may also be true for some other antimicrobials. In fact, clinical and epidemiological evidence suggests that, in many of the published studies showing that penicillin has relatively high failure rates for eradicating group A streptococci from the upper respiratory tract, the patient population was likely “contaminated” with carriers [89, 90].

In practice, it is difficult to differentiate a carrier with an intercurrent viral infection from a patient with acute streptococcal pharyngitis. Helpful clues include patient age, season of the year, local epidemiology (e.g., the local prevalence of influenza and/or enteroviral illnesses), and the precise nature of the presenting signs and symptoms (see Clinical Diagnosis).

In many instances, however, the clinician may not be able to distinguish persistent carriage from acute infection and will elect to administer another course of antimicrobials. For single episodes of pharyngitis that are associated with laboratory confirmation of group A streptococci and that occur shortly after completion of a course of appropriate antimicrobial therapy, treatment with any of the agents listed in table 4 is appropriate. Because patient compliance with oral antimicrobial therapy often is an issue, a regimen of intramuscular benzathine penicillin G should be considered. For these single second episodes, it is not necessary to obtain additional throat swab specimens for culture after the second course of therapy unless the patient remains or becomes symptomatic or unless special circumstances are present (see the section “Recommendations” in Diagnosis of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis).

An even more challenging clinical circumstance is the person (usually a school-aged child or adolescent) who, within a period of months to years, experiences multiple episodes of acute pharyngitis for which culture or RADT results are positive for group A streptococci. It is likely that most of these patients are carriers experiencing nonstreptococcal infections. For a patient with frequent distinct episodes, information regarding the clinical response to antibiotic therapy and the presence or absence of group A streptococci in cultures of throat swabs obtained during asymptomatic intervals is helpful in distinguishing persistent carriage from recurrent episodes of acute pharyngitis. Serotyping or genotyping of streptococcal isolates recovered from specimens obtained during distinct episodes from an individual patient may also assist in arriving at this determination, but such studies are available only from specialized research laboratories.

If a physician suspects that “ping-pong” spread of infections is the explanation for multiple recurrent episodes of group A streptococcal infections in a family, it may be helpful to obtain specimens simultaneously from all family contacts and treat those for whom culture results are positive (B-III). There is no credible evidence that family pets are reservoirs for group A streptococci or that they contribute to familial spread.

Continuous antimicrobial prophylaxis is not recommended except to prevent the recurrence of rheumatic fever in patients who have experienced a previous episode of rheumatic fever. Surgical removal of the tonsils may be considered for the rare patient whose symptomatic episodes do not diminish in frequency over time and for whom no alternative explanation for the recurrent pharyngitis is evident. Tonsillectomy may decrease the number of recurrences of symptomatic pharyngitis in some patients, but only for a limited time [91] (A-I).

There have been no definitive controlled studies of treatment of multiple repeated symptomatic episodes of culture-positive acute pharyngitis in the same person. However, the regimens listed in table 4 have been reported to result in low rates of bacteriologic failure [92–94].

Recommendations. A small percentage of patients will have a second episode of acute pharyngitis with results of throat culture (or RADT) positive for group A streptococci within a short time after completion of a course of antimicrobial therapy. A single such episode may be retreated with the regimens listed in table 4. When multiple episodes occur over the course of months or years, it may be difficult to differentiate viral infections in a carrier from true group A streptococcal infections. Certain antimicrobial agents have been shown to yield high rates of pharyngeal eradication of streptococci under these particular circumstances (A-II). Suggested regimens that use these agents are listed in table 5.

Table 5
View larger version:
Table 5

Recommendations for treatment of symptomatic persons with multiple, recurrent, episodes of pharyngitis proven by culture or rapid antigen detection testing.

Previous SectionNext Section

Indicators of the Quality of Care

Indicators of the quality of care of patients with acute pharyngitis include the following: (1) for patients suspected of having group A streptococcal pharyngitis, performance of throat cultures or RADT; (2) for patients with acute pharyngitis and positive tests for group A streptococci, prescription of one of the antimicrobial regimens recommended in table 4; (3) for patients with negative microbiological test results for group A streptococci, withholding or discontinuation of antimicrobial therapy; (4) for asymptomatic patients who have received an adequate course of antimicrobial therapy, omission of routine performance of follow-up cultures or RADT; (5) for asymptomatic family contacts of patients with group A streptococcal pharyngitis, avoidance of routine throat cultures or RADT; and (6) avoidance of prescription of continuous long-term antimicrobial prophylaxis to prevent recurrent episodes of acute pharyngitis (except for patients with a history of rheumatic fever).

Previous SectionNext Section

Footnotes

  • These guidelines were developed and issued on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

  • Received March 21, 2002.
  • Revision received June 19, 2002.
Previous Section
 

References

  1. ↵
    1. Bisno AL,
    2. Gerber MA,
    3. Gwaltney JM Jr,
    4. Kaplan EL,
    5. Schwartz RH
    . Diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: a practice guideline. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:574-83.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  2. ↵
    1. Shvartzman P,
    2. Tabenkin H,
    3. Rosentzwaig A,
    4. Dolginov F
    . Treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis with amoxycillin once a day. BMJ 1993;306:1170-2.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  3. ↵
    1. Feder HMJ,
    2. Gerber MA,
    3. Randolph MF,
    4. Stelmach PS,
    5. Kaplan EL
    . Once-daily therapy for streptococcal pharyngitis with amoxicillin. Pediatrics 1999;103:47-51.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  4. ↵
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Tanz RR
    . New approaches to the treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Curr Opin Pediatr 2001;13:51-5.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  5. ↵
    1. Peter G
    . Streptococcal pharyngitis: current therapy and criteria for evaluation of new agents. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14(Suppl 2):218-23.
  6. ↵
    1. Gross PA,
    2. Barrett TL,
    3. Dellinger EP,
    4. et al
    . Purpose of quality standards for infectious diseases. Clin Infect Dis 1994;18:421-00.
    FREE Full Text
  7. ↵
    1. Bisno AL
    . Acute pharyngitis: etiology and diagnosis. Pediatrics 1996;97:949-54.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  8. ↵
    1. Wannamaker LW
    . Perplexity and precision in the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis. Am J Dis Child 1972;124:352-8.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Mandell GL,
    2. Dolan R,
    3. Bennett JE
    1. Gwaltney JM,
    2. Bisno AL
    . Pharyngitis. In: Mandell GL, Dolan R, Bennett JE, editors. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 5th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 2000. p. 656-62.
  10. ↵
    1. Cimolai N,
    2. Elford RW,
    3. Bryan L,
    4. Anand C,
    5. Berger P
    . Do the beta-hemolytic non-group A streptococci cause pharyngitis. Rev Infect Dis 1988;10:587-601.
    MedlineWeb of Science
    1. Turner JC,
    2. Hayden GF,
    3. Kiselica D,
    4. Lohr J,
    5. Fishburne CF,
    6. Murren D
    . Association of group C beta-hemolytic streptococci with endemic pharyngitis among college students. JAMA 1990;264:2644-7.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Meier FA,
    2. Centor RM,
    3. Graham L Jr,
    4. Dalton HP
    . Clinical and microbiological evidence for endemic pharyngitis among adults due to group C streptococci. Arch Intern Med 1990;150:825-9.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  13. ↵
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Randolph MF,
    3. Martin NJ,
    4. et al
    . Community-wide outbreak of group G streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatrics 1991;87:598-603.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  14. ↵
    1. Mackenzie A,
    2. Fuite LA,
    3. Chan FT,
    4. et al
    . Incidence and pathogenicity of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum during a 2-year study in Ottawa. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21:177-81.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  15. ↵
    1. Nyman M,
    2. Algupalli R,
    3. Stromberg S,
    4. Forsgren A
    . Antibody response to Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection in humans. J Infect Dis 1997;175:1515-8.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  16. ↵
    1. Kaplan EL,
    2. Top FH Jr,
    3. Dudding BA,
    4. Wannamaker LW
    . Diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis: differentiation of active infection from the carrier state in the symptomatic child. J Infect Dis 1971;123:490-501.
    FREE Full Text
  17. ↵
    1. Shulman ST
    1. Wannamaker LW
    . Diagnosis of pharyngitis: clinical and epidemiologic features. In: Shulman ST, editor. Pharyngitis: management in an era of declining rheumatic fever. New York: Praeger; 1984. p. 33-46.
  18. ↵
    1. Breese BB
    . A simple scorecard for the tentative diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis. Am J Dis Child 1977;131:514-7.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Stillerman M,
    2. Bernstein SH
    . Streptococcal pharyngitis: evaluation of clinical syndromes in diagnosis. Am J Dis Child 1961;101:476-89.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  20. ↵
    1. Centor RM,
    2. Witherspoon JM,
    3. Dalton HP,
    4. Brody CE,
    5. Link K
    . The diagnosis of strep throat in adults in the emergency room. Med Decis Making 1981;1:239-46.
    FREE Full Text
  21. ↵
    1. Wald ER,
    2. Green MD,
    3. Schwartz B,
    4. Barbadora K
    . A streptococcal score card revisited. Pediatr Emerg Care 1998;14:109-11.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  22. ↵
    1. Poses RM,
    2. Cebul RD,
    3. Collins M,
    4. Fager SS
    . The accuracy of experienced physicians' probability estimates for patients with sore throats: implications for decision making. JAMA 1985;254:925-9.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Komaroff AL,
    2. Pass TM,
    3. Aronson MD,
    4. et al
    . The prediction of streptococcal pharyngitis in adults. J Gen Intern Med 1986;1:1-7.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  24. ↵
    1. Bisno AL
    . Acute pharyngitis. N Engl J Med 2001;344:205-11.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  25. ↵
    1. Snow V,
    2. Mottur-Pilson C,
    3. Cooper RJ,
    4. Hoffman JR
    . Principles of appropriate antibiotic use of acute pharyngitis in adults. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:506-8.
    FREE Full Text
  26. ↵
    1. Cooper JR,
    2. Hoffman JR,
    3. Bartlett JG,
    4. et al
    . Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults: background. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:509-17.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  27. ↵
    1. Linder JA,
    2. Stafford RS
    . Antibiotic treatment of adults with sore throat by community primary care physicians. JAMA 2001;286:1181-6.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  28. ↵
    1. Breese BB,
    2. Disney FA
    . The accuracy of diagnosis of beta-streptococcal infections on clinical grounds. J Pediatr 1954;44:670-3.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  29. ↵
    1. Gerber MA
    . Comparison of throat cultures and rapid strep tests for diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989;8:820-4.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  30. ↵
    1. Brien JH,
    2. Bass JW
    . Streptococcal pharyngitis: optimal site for throat culture. J Pediatr 1985;106:781-3.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  31. ↵
    1. Gunn BA,
    2. Mesrobian R,
    3. Keiser JF,
    4. Bass J
    . Cultures of Streptococcus pyogenes from the oropharynx. Lab Med 1985;16:369-71.
  32. ↵
    1. Schwartz RH,
    2. Gerber MA,
    3. McCoy P
    . Effect of atmosphere of incubation on the isolation of group A streptococci from throat cultures. J Lab Clin Med 1985;106:88-92.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  33. ↵
    1. Lauer BA,
    2. Reller LB,
    3. Mirrett S
    . Effect of atmosphere and duration of incubation on primary isolation of group A streptococci from throat cultures. J Clin Microbiol 1983;17:338-40.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  34. ↵
    1. Roddey OF Jr,
    2. Clegg HW,
    3. Martin ES,
    4. Swetenburg RL,
    5. Koonce EW
    . Comparison of throat culture methods for the recovery of group A streptococci in a pediatric office setting. JAMA 1995;274:1863-5.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  35. ↵
    1. Shulman ST
    1. Gerber MA
    . Diagnosis of pharyngitis: methodology of throat cultures. In: Shulman ST, editor. Pharyngitis: management in an era of declining rheumatic fever. New York: Praeger; 1984. p. 61-72.
  36. ↵
    1. Kellogg JA
    . Suitability of throat culture procedures for detection of group A streptococci and as reference standards for evaluation of streptococcal antigen detection kits. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:165-9.
    FREE Full Text
  37. ↵
    1. Ederer GM,
    2. Herrmann MM,
    3. Bruce R,
    4. Matsen JM,
    5. Chapman SS
    . Rapid extraction method with pronase B for grouping beta-hemolytic streptococci. Appl Microbiol 1972;23:285-8.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  38. ↵
    1. Murray PR,
    2. Wold AD,
    3. Hall MM,
    4. Washington JA 2nd
    . Bacitracin differentiation of presumptive identification of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci: comparison of primary and purified plate testing. J Pediatr 1976;89:576-9.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  39. ↵
    1. Randolph MF,
    2. Gerber MA,
    3. DeMeo KK,
    4. Wright L
    . Effect of antibiotic therapy on the clinical course of streptococcal pharyngitis. J Pediatr 1985;106:870-5.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  40. ↵
    1. Krober MS,
    2. Bass JW,
    3. Michels GN
    . Streptococcal pharyngitis: placebo-controlled double-blind evaluation of clinical response to penicillin therapy. JAMA 1985;253:1271-4.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  41. ↵
    1. Lieu TA,
    2. Fleisher GR,
    3. Schwartz JS
    . Clinical evaluation of a latex agglutination test for streptococcal pharyngitis: performance and impact on treatment rates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988;7:847-54.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  42. ↵
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Randolph MF,
    3. Chanatry J,
    4. Wright LL,
    5. DeMeo KK,
    6. Anderson LR
    . Antigen detection test for streptococcal pharyngitis: evaluation of sensitivity with respect to true infections. J Pediatr 1986;108:654-8.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  43. ↵
    1. Shulman ST
    . Streptococcal pharyngitis: diagnostic considerations. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:567-71.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  44. ↵
    1. Fries SM
    . Diagnosis of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in a private clinic: comparative evaluation of an optical immunoassay method and culture. J Pediatr 1995;126:933-6.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Tanz RR,
    3. Kabat W,
    4. et al
    . Optical immunoassay test for group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis. An office-based, multicenter investigation. JAMA 1997;277:899-903.
  46. ↵
    1. Steed LL,
    2. Korgenski K,
    3. Daly JA
    . Rapid detection of Streptococcus pyogenes in pediatric patient specimens by DNA probes. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:2996-3000.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  47. ↵
    1. Schlager TA,
    2. Hayden GA,
    3. Woods WA,
    4. Dudley SM,
    5. Hendley JO
    . Optical immunoassay for rapid detection of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996;150:245-8.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  48. ↵
    1. Pickering LK
    1. Committee on Infectious Diseases
    . Group A streptococcal infection. In: Pickering LK, editor. 2000 Red book. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2001. p. 526-36.
  49. ↵
    1. Nyquist AC,
    2. Gonzales R,
    3. Steiner JF,
    4. Sande MA
    . Antibiotic prescribing for children with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis. JAMA 1998;279:875-7.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  50. ↵
    1. Kaplan EL,
    2. Gastanaduy AS,
    3. Huwe BB
    . The role of the carrier in treatment failures after antibiotic therapy for group A streptococci in the upper respiratory tract. J Lab Clin Med 1981;98:326-35.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  51. ↵
    1. Gerber MA
    . Treatment failures and carriers: perception or problems? Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:576-9.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  52. ↵
    1. Nelson JD
    . The effect of penicillin therapy on the symptoms and signs of streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1984;3:10-3.
    Web of Science
  53. ↵
    1. Brink WR,
    2. Rammelkamp CH Jr,
    3. Denny FW,
    4. Wannamaker LW
    . Effect of penicillin and aureomycin on the natural course of streptococcal tonsillitis and pharyngitis. Am J Med 1951;10:300-8.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  54. ↵
    1. Catanzaro FJ,
    2. Stetson CA,
    3. Morris AJ,
    4. et al
    . The role of streptococcus in the pathogenesis of rheumatic fever. Am J Med 1954;17:749-56.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  55. ↵
    1. Denny FW,
    2. Wannamaker LW,
    3. Brink WR,
    4. Rammelkamp CH,
    5. Custer EA
    . Prevention of rheumatic fever: treatment of the preceding streptococcic infection. JAMA 1950;143:151-3.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  56. ↵
    1. Wannamaker LW,
    2. Rammelkamp CH Jr,
    3. Denny FW,
    4. Brink WR,
    5. Houser HB,
    6. Hahn EO
    . Prophylaxis of acute rheumatic fever by treatment of preceding streptococcal infection with various amounts of depot penicillin. Am J Med 1951;10:673-95.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  57. ↵
    1. Siegel AC,
    2. Johnson EE,
    3. Stollerman GH
    . Controlled studies of streptococcal pharyngitis in a pediatric population. I. Factors related to the attack rate of rheumatic fever. N Engl J Med 1961;265:559-66.
    CrossRefWeb of Science
  58. ↵
    1. Chamovitz R,
    2. Catanzaro FJ,
    3. Stetson CA,
    4. Rammelkamp CH
    . Prevention of rheumatic fever by treatment of previous streptococcal infections. N Engl J Med 1954;251:466-71.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  59. ↵
    1. Frank PF,
    2. Stollerman GH,
    3. Miller LF
    . Protection of a military population from rheumatic fever. JAMA 1965;193:755-83.
  60. ↵
    1. Wood HF,
    2. Feinstein AR,
    3. Taranta A,
    4. Epstein JA,
    5. Simpson R
    . Rheumatic fever in children and adolescents: a long-term epidemiologic study of subsequent prophylaxis, streptococcal infections, and clinical sequelae. III. Comparative effectiveness of three prophylaxis regimens in preventing streptococcal infections and rheumatic recurrences. Ann Intern Med 1964;60(Suppl 5):31-46.
  61. ↵
    1. Seppala H,
    2. Klaukka T,
    3. Vuopio-Varkila J,
    4. et al
    . The effect of changes in the consumption of macrolide antibiotics on erythromycin resistance in group A streptococci in Finland. N Engl J Med 1997;337:441-6.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  62. ↵
    1. Cornaglia G,
    2. Ligozzi M,
    3. Mazzariol A,
    4. et al
    . Resistance of Streptococcus pyogenes to erythromycin and related antibiotics in Italy. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27(Suppl 1):87-92.
  63. ↵
    1. Kaplan EL,
    2. Johnson DR,
    3. Del Rosario MC,
    4. Horn DL
    . Susceptibility of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci to thirteen antibiotics: examination of 301 strains isolated in the United States between 1994 and 1997. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:1069-72.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  64. ↵
    1. Martin JM,
    2. Green M,
    3. Barbadora KA,
    4. Wald ER
    . Erythromycin-resistant group A streptococci in schoolchildren in Pittsburgh. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1200-06.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  65. ↵
    1. York MK,
    2. Gibbs L,
    3. Perdreau-Remington F,
    4. Brooks GF
    . Characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes isolates from the San Francisco Bay area of northern California. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:1727-31.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  66. ↵
    1. Dajani A,
    2. Taubert K,
    3. Ferrieri P,
    4. et al
    . Treatment of acute streptococcal pharyngitis and prevention of rheumatic fever: a statement for health professionals. Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the American Heart Association. Pediatrics 1995;96:758-64.
  67. ↵
    1. World Health Organization (WHO)
    . Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Geneva: WHO; 1988. Technical report 764.
  68. ↵
    1. McCarty J,
    2. Hedrick JA,
    3. Gooch WM
    . Clarithromycin suspension vs. penicillin V suspension in children with streptococcal pharyngitis. Adv Ther 2000;17:14-26.
  69. ↵
    1. Mehra S,
    2. van Moerkerke M,
    3. Welck J,
    4. et al
    . Short course therapy with cefuroxime axetil for group A streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:452-7.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  70. ↵
    1. Adam D,
    2. Hostalek U,
    3. Troster K
    . 5-day therapy of bacterial pharyngitis and tonsillitis with cefixime: comparison with 10-day treatment with penicillin V [in German]. Cefixime Study Group. Klin Padiatr 1996;208:310-3.
  71. ↵
    1. Boccazzi A,
    2. Tonelli P,
    3. DeAngelis M,
    4. Bellussi L,
    5. Passali D,
    6. Careddu P
    . Short course therapy with ceftibuten versus azithromycin in pediatric streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000;19:963-7.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  72. ↵
    1. Tack KJ,
    2. Henry DC,
    3. Gooch WM,
    4. Brink DN,
    5. Keyserling CH
    . Five-day cefdinir treatment for streptococcal pharyngitis. Cefdinir Pharyngitis Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:1073-5.
  73. ↵
    1. Pichichero ME,
    2. Gooch WM,
    3. Rodriguez W,
    4. et al
    . Effective short-course treatment of acute group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis: ten days of penicillin vs. 5 days or 10 days of cefpodoxime therapy in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1994;148:1053-60.
    Medline
  74. ↵
    1. Still JG
    . Management of pediatric patients with group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus pharyngitis: treatment options. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995;14(Suppl 3A):57-61.
    CrossRef
  75. ↵
    1. Kaplan EL,
    2. Gooch WM III,
    3. Notario GF,
    4. Craft JC
    . Macrolide therapy of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 10 days of macrolide therapy (clarithromycin) is more effective in streptococcal eradication than 5 days (azithromycin). Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:1798-802.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  76. ↵
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Randolph MF,
    3. DeMeo K,
    4. Feder HM Jr,
    5. Kaplan EL
    . Failure of once-daily penicillin V therapy for streptococcal pharyngitis. Am J Dis Child 1989;143:153-5.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  77. ↵
    1. Hooton TM
    . A comparison of azithromycin and penicillin V for the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 3A):23-26.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  78. ↵
    1. Pichichero ME,
    2. Disney FA,
    3. Aronovitz GH,
    4. Talpey WB,
    5. Green JL,
    6. Francis AB
    . Randomized, single-blind evaluation of cefadroxil and phenoxymethyl penicillin in the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987;31:903-6.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  79. ↵
    1. Block SL,
    2. Hedrick JA,
    3. Tyler RD
    . Comparative study of the effectiveness of cefixime and penicillin V for the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis in children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992;11:919-25.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  80. ↵
    1. Adam D,
    2. Hostalek U,
    3. Troster K
    . Five-day cefixime therapy for bacterial pharyngitis and/or tonsillitis: comparison with 10-day penicillin V therapy. Cefixime Study Group. Infection 1995;23(Suppl 2)(Suppl 2):83-6.
  81. ↵
    1. Pichichero ME,
    2. McLinn SE,
    3. Gooch WM III,
    4. et al
    . Ceftibuten vs. penicillin V in group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995;14:102-7.
  82. ↵
    1. McCarty JM
    . Comparative efficacy and safety of cefprozil versus penicillin, cefaclor, and erythromycin in the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis and tonsillitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994;13:846-50.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  83. ↵
    1. Nemeth MA,
    2. Gooch WM III,
    3. Hedrick J,
    4. Slosberg E,
    5. Keyserling CH,
    6. Tack KJ
    . Comparison of cefdinir and penicillin for the treatment of pediatric streptococcal pharyngitis. Clin Ther 1999;21:1525-32.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  84. ↵
    1. Dingle JH,
    2. Badger G,
    3. Jordan WS Jr
    , editors. Illness in the home. Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University Press; 1964. p. 97-119.
  85. ↵
    1. The Working Group on Prevention of Invasive Group A Streptococcus Infections
    . Prevention of invasive group A streptococcal disease among household contacts of case patients: is prophylaxis warranted. JAMA 1998;279:1206-10.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  86. ↵
    1. Schwartz RH,
    2. Wientzen RL Jr,
    3. Pedreira F,
    4. Feroli EJ,
    5. Mella GW,
    6. Guandolo VL
    . Penicillin V for group A streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis: a randomized trial of seven days' versus ten days' therapy. JAMA 1981;246:1790-5.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  87. ↵
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Randolph MF,
    3. Chanatry J,
    4. Wright LL,
    5. Anderson LR,
    6. Kaplan EL
    . Once daily therapy for streptococcal pharyngitis with cefadroxil. J Pediatr 1986;109:531-7.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  88. ↵
    1. Kaplan EL
    . The group A streptococcal upper respiratory tract carrier state: an enigma. J Pediatr 1980;97:337-45.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
  89. ↵
    1. Gerber MA,
    2. Tanz RR,
    3. Kabat W,
    4. et al
    . Potential mechanisms for failure to eradicate group A streptococci from the pharynx. Pediatrics 1999;104:911-7.
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  90. ↵
    1. Shulman ST,
    2. Gerber MA,
    3. Tanz RR,
    4. Markowitz M
    . Streptococcal pharyngitis: the case for penicillin therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:1-7.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  91. ↵
    1. Paradise JL,
    2. Bluestone CD,
    3. Bachman RZ,
    4. et al
    . Efficacy of tonsillectomy for recurrent throat infection in severely affected children: results of parallel randomized and nonrandomized clinical trials. N Engl J Med 1984;310:674-83.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  92. ↵
    1. Tanz RR,
    2. Poncher JR,
    3. Corydon KE,
    4. Kabat K,
    5. Yogev R,
    6. Shulman ST
    . Clindamycin treatment of chronic pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci. J Pediatr 1991;119:123-8.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
    1. Orrling A,
    2. Stjernquist-Desatnik A,
    3. Schalen C,
    4. Kamme C
    . Clindamycin in persisting streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis after penicillin treatment. Scand J Infect Dis 1994;26:535-41.
    MedlineWeb of Science
  94. ↵
    1. Kaplan EL,
    2. Johnson DR
    . Eradication of group A streptococci from the upper respiratory tract by amoxicillin with clavulanate after oral penicillin V treatment failure. J Pediatr 1988;113:400-3.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
    1. Tanz RR,
    2. Shulman ST,
    3. Barthel MJ,
    4. Willert C,
    5. Yogev R
    . Penicillin plus rifampin eradicates pharyngeal carriage of group A streptococci. J Pediatr 1985;106:876-80.
    CrossRefMedlineWeb of Science
    1. Chaudhary S,
    2. Bilinsky AS,
    3. Hennessy JL,
    4. et al
    . Penicillin V and rifampin for the treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: a randomized trial of 10 days penicillin vs. 10 days penicillin with rifampin during the final 4 days of therapy. J Pediatr 1985;106:481-6.
| Table of Contents

This Article

  1. Clin Infect Dis. (2002) 35 (2): 113-125. doi: 10.1086/340949
  1. ExtractFree
  2. » Full Text (HTML)Free
  3. Full Text (PDF)Free

Classifications

Share

  1. Email this article

Navigate This Article

Current Issue

  1. March 1, 2012 54 (5)
  1. Clinical Infectious Diseases
  1. Alert me to new issues

Most